Fertiliser Chemical Industry

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2631 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? 10.13 Fertiliser Fertiliser, a crucial input to the agricultural sector, forms the backbone of the Indian economy. Fertilisers can be classified into chemical fertilisers and organic fertilizers, of which chemical fertilisers are more prominently used in India. These have played a significant role in Indias agricultural success story, by not only fulfilling the total food grains requirements, but also creating an exportable surplus. Chemical fertilisers played a crucial role in the success of Indias green revolution and consequent self-reliance in food-grain production, which in turn gave an impetus to the growth of this sector. Presently India is the third largest producer of fertiliser in the world. The fertiliser industry is also one of the most energy intensive sectors within the Indian economy apart from aluminum, cement, iron steel, glass and paper, as it requires various fuels like natural gas, fuel oil and naphtha, as raw materials for production. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Fertiliser Chemical Industry | Economics Dissertations" essay for you Create order Industry Size and structure The Indian Fertiliser Industry, under the purview of the Ministry of Chemicals Fertilisers can be segmented on the basis of the various nutrients. Union Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilisers (Department of Fertilisers) Structure of the Indian Fertiliser Industry Potash (K) (Mainly imported) Phosphate (P) Public Private Co-operatives Nitrogen (N) Public Private Co-operatives According to the data released by the Department of Fertilisers, the total installed capacity of the Nitrogen segment in India stands at 12.06 mn MT (million metric tonnes), of which, the public sector accounts for 29%, while private and co-operative sectors account for 26.27% and 44.73%, respectively. The capacity in the phosphate segment is 5.7 mn MT with the share of public sector being 7.65%, while that of private sector is 30.27% and co-operatives accounts for 62.08%. There being no viable resources or reserves of potash in the country, the entire requirement is entirely imported. In addition to these segments, there are the complex fertilisers produced by combining various nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphate and potash in different proportions. While urea, ammonium sulphate, calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) and ammonium chloride are the nitrogenous fertilisers produced in the country; the only phosphatic fertiliser being produced is SSP (single superphosphate). Production of complex fertilisers include DAP (Diammonium Phosphate), several grades of nitrophosphates and NPK complexes. Of these, urea and DAP are the main fertilisers produced indigenously. Demand Supply side factors Fertiliser consumption mainly depends on various agriculture related factors such as soil quality, farming methods, rainfall and irrigation patterns, different geographical aspects, calamities, availability of technology and information, varieties and qualities of seeds as well as access to capital and credit and other inputs. With a shift in agricultural production from the traditional system of farming to intensive cultivation, fertiliser demand got a boost. Moreover, macro-oriented factors such as crop related market forces, cropping pattern and fertiliser pricing policies too influence fertiliser consumption. Further, the Government has also taken various steps to spread the awareness about the benefits of fertilisers and ensure efficient usage of fertilisers, through the promotion of soil testing laboratories throughout the country. Consequently, the annual consumption of fertilisers in nutrient terms (N, P K) increased from 0.07 mn MT in 1951-52 to 21.6 mn MT in 2006-07, with the per hectare consumption, which was less than 1 kg in 1951-52 increasing to 13.26 kg (estimated) in 2006-07. Urea and DAP are the most popular fertilisers, accounting for a major portion of the total fertiliser consumed in the country. Consumption of Urea, DAP and MOP (Muriate of potash) has been increasing continuously during the last few years, and in 2006-07 the consumption level stood at 24.48 mn MT, 6.92 mn MT and 2.40 mn MT, respectively. Further, as per the projections of the Department of Agriculture Cooperation (DAC), the demand during the Kharif season in FY072007 was for 13.16 mn MT of urea, 4.0 mn MT of DAP and 1.65 mn MT of MOP. This demand was met fully and sales of 12.45 mn MT of Urea, 3.61 mn MT of DAP and 1.41 mn MT of MOP were registered. Similarly, duirng the Rabi season of FY08, the demand was for 14.0 mn MT of Urea, 4.91 mn MT of DAP and 1.96 mn MT of MOP. On the supply front, as per statistics provided by the Department of Fertilisers, at present there are around 64 large size fertiliser units in the country, manufacturing a wide range of nitrogenous and phosphatic/complex fertilisers. Of these, 39 units produce urea, 18 units produce DAP and complex fertilisers, 7 units produce low analysis straight nitrogenous fertilisers. Further, from these, 9 units produce ammonium sulphate as a by-product. Besides, there are about 79 small and medium scale units producing single superphosphate (SSP). With an installed capacity of 12.06 mn MT of nitrogen and 5.65 mn MT of Phosphate the domestic fertiliser industry has more or less attained the levels of capacity utilisation comparable internationally. The capacity utilisation during 2006-07 was 96.0% for nitrogen and 79.8% for phosphate. The estimated capacity utilisation for 2007-08 was 92.2% of nitrogen and 71.9% of phosphate. Within this, the capacity utilisation in terms of the urea plants was 103.1% in 2006-07 and was estimated to be 101.1% in 2007-08. Moreover, domestic raw materials are available only for nitrogenous fertilisers. For the production of urea and other ammonia based fertilisers, methane constitutes major input and is obtained from natural gas/associated gas, naphtha, fuel oil, low sulfur heavy stock (LSHS) and coal. In the recent years, production has increasingly switched over to the use of natural gas, associated gas and naphtha as feedstock or raw materials as these are more efficient and less polluting than other heavy fuels like fuel oil and coal. Of these, gas is in fair abundance within the country. The raw materials for the production of phosphatic fertiliser have to be imported as India has no source of elemental sulfur, phosphoric acid and rock phosphate. As for Potash (K), since there are no viable sources/reserves in the country, its entire requirement is met through imports. Exports as well as dispatch of urea is prohibited without Governments permission under the Fertilisers Movement Control Order (1973). Hence, the dispatches of urea to State and Union Territories (UT) from manufacturers are arranged through a monthly dispatch plan by the Department of Fertilisers under the Ministry of Chemical and Fertilisers. The Government in consultation with the State Governments/UT assesses the requirement of urea for each state and UT prior to each crop season. Initially the demand is fulfilled through allocations from indigenous production. However, in case of a gap between the demand and the indigenous supply the demand is met through imported urea. The production fertilisers stood at 11.57 mn MT for nitrogenous fertilisers and 4.51 mn MT for phosphatic fertilisers in FY07. This witnessed a to 11.12 mn MT for nitrogenous fertilisers and 4.06 mn MT for phosphatic fertilisers in FY08. Rising price of crude oil, whose derivatives are used as a key input in fertilizer plants as well as that of other raw materials, coupled with capacity limitations and delay in payment of subsidies by the Government led to the shortfall in fertilizer production in 2007-08. Table 10. : Demand Supply of Fertilisers in India (mn MT) FY03 FY04 FY05 FY06 FY07 FY08 Consumption Nitrogen (N) 10.47 11.07 11.71 12.72 13.77 N.A. Phosphate (P) 4.02 4.12 4.62 5.20 5.54 N.A. Potash (K) 1.60 1.59 2.06 2.41 2.33 N.A. Total 16.09 16.79 18.399 20.34 21.65 N.A. Production Nitrogen (N) 10.56 10.63 11.33 11.35 11.57 11.12 Phosphate (P) 3.91 3.63 4.06 4.22 4.51 4.06 Potash (K) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 14.47 14.26 15.39 15.57 16.08 15.18 Imports Nitrogen (N) 0.06 0.13 4.09 1.38 2.68 3.49 Phosphate (P) 0.17 0.33 0.29 1.12 1.32 1.27 Potash (K) 1.43 1.54 2.04 2.74 2.06 2.01 Total 1.67 2.01 2.75 5.25 6.08 6.78 Note: Figures for FY08 are estimated, Import figs are upto 31-January-2008 Source: Department of Fertiliser ( Annual report) Government Policies and Way forward: Considering the vital role of fertilisers in making India self-reliant in terms of food security, the Government of India has been consistently pursuing policies conducive to increase the availability and usage of fertilisers in the country. In effect, the sector does feature Government control especially in terms of pricing and supply. More importantly, the cost of fertilisers to farmers is subsidised, wherein the Government fixes a selling price and then compensates manufacturers for the difference between the cost of production and the selling prices. It is therefore interesting to briefly scan the some of the important Government policies concerning this sector and the implications and impact. In 1973, when the oil price shock led to an overshooting of the prices of imported naptha and oil, the Government introduced the Retention Price Scheme (RPS) in 1977 for indigenous nitrogenous fertiliser units, to provide the farmers fertilisers at affordable rates without harming the interests of the manufacturers. Under RPS, the difference between retention price (cost of production as assessed by the Government plus 12% post tax return on net worth) and the statutorily notified sale price was paid as subsidy to each urea unit. The policy provided a cushion to ensure reasonable return on investment and facilitated healthy development of the fertiliser industry. The Scheme was later extended to phosphatic and other complex fertilisers in February 1979 and Single Super Phosphate (SSP) in 1982. The National Industrial Policy of 1991 delicensed the fertiliser industry, and facilitated the setting up of many new manufacturing units. Meanwhile, the devaluation of the rupee in 1991 enhanced the burden of subsidy was began adding pressure to the Government budget. This prompted the Government to progressive decontrol of price and distribution of P K fertilisers and also decanalise imports. As a result Retention Pricing Scheme got confined to urea. Consequently, the prices of these fertilisers increased sharply leading to fall in their demand. To arrest decline in their consumption, Department of Agriculture Cooperation (DAC) introduced a scheme of concession on decontrolled P K fertilisers in 1992-93 on an adhoc basis. Presently (DAP, 18-46-0), Mono-Ammonium Phosphate (MAP, 11-52-0), Muriate of Potash (MOP, 0-0-60), 11 grades of Complex Fertilisers and Single Super Phosphate (SSP, 0-16-0) are covered under the Concession Scheme for decontrolled PK fertilisers. The, Government fixes the Maximum Retail Price (MRP) of DAP, MAP, MOP and NPK Complexes uniformly across the country. The difference between the total delivered costs of the fertiliser at the farm gate and the MRP payable by the farmers is given by the Government of India as Concession / Subsidy to the farmers and paid to the fertiliser manufactures and importers. With effect from 1st April 1997, concession to these fertilisers was increased vis--vis their indicative MRPs to give impetus to their demand. The MRP of P K fertilisers indicated by the Government of India has remained unchanged from 2002-03 till date. On the other hand, due to continuous increase in price of inputs and raw materials, total delivered cost of fertilisers covered under the Concession Scheme has increased. This has called for increased compensation for the manufacturers or importers. As a result, the Department of Fertilisers entrusted the Tariff Commission the responsibility to conduct a fresh cost price study of the P K fertilisers and update various parameters under the Concession Scheme. The recommendations of the Tariff Commission are expected soon. However, the Government has decided to continue with the Concession Scheme on decontrolled P K fertilisers during 2007-08. In the interim years, as per the recommendations of the Expenditure Reforms Commission (ERC) a New Pricing Scheme (NPS) for urea units for replacing the RPS was formulated and notified on January 1, 2003. Under the Scheme it was envisaged that decontrol of urea distribution/movement will be carried out in a phased manner. The process of deconcontrol is being undertaken in different stages and the stage-111 of NPS is under place effective from October 1, 2006 to March 31, 2010. The pricing policy for urea units for Stage-III the NPS was formulated in January 1, 2004 keeping in view the recommendations of the Working Group which was set up for reviewing the effectiveness of Stage-I and II of NPS under the Chairmanship of Dr. Y.K. Alagh. The Policy aims at promoting further investment in the urea sector, encouraging increase in indigenous production from the existing urea units in the country and facilitating early conversion of non-gas based Units to gas, leading to substantial savings in subsidy. Natural gas based plants currently account for more than 66% of urea capacity, while naphtha is used for less than 30% urea production and the balance capacity is based on fuel oil and LSHS as feedstock. The policy also incentivised additional urea production and encouraged investment in Joint Venture projects abroad. It also aimed at establishing a more transparent and efficient urea distribution and movement. It is expected that with the launch of the Fertiliser Monitoring System (FMS) to monitor movement of fertilisers upto district level and the freight rationalisation proposed in the new policy the distribution of fertilisers in remote corners of the country will improve considerably without any complaints of shortages, in future. On the basis of the available and projected hydrocarbon (natural gas) resources in the country, it is observed that Nitrogen (Urea) is the only fertiliser where the country can attain self-sufficiency and also be a net exporter. However, with the demand- production gap rising every year (demand may reach upto 19 million tonnes by 2011-12), import dependence in this sector has increased over the years. In order to reduce this gap, there is a need to increase investments in urea sector, as there has been no significant investment in last 10 years, in this sector. In line with the above requirement, the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) approved a policy for New Investments in Urea sector on August 2008. This policy is based on the recommendations of the Abhijit Sen Committee Sen Committee and aims at attracting investments in urea sector and generate additional production capacities through revamp and expansion of existing units and revival of the eight closed units of Fertiliser Corporation of India Ltd. The New Investment Policy marks a departure from the existing policies which are based on cost plus approach with a 12% post tax return to the manufacturers. As the Policy provides for an Import Parity Price (IPP) benchmark with floor and ceiling price of US$ 250 PMT and US$ 425 PMT respectively, for pricing of urea from new investments in this sector. This could be considered as a paradigm shift made by the governmentby moving away from a cost plus based pricing approach to more of a market based one for the first time as the government has now linked the prices of urea fertilisers to the international market. This is likely to make urea available at competitive prices. One of the major issues confronting the fertiliser sector is the subsidies which have been accelerating over the last few years. The major reason for this can be attributed to the sharp increase in the cost of input for indigenous fertilisers as well as rising prices of imported fertilisers. Moreover, the cost of various inputs such as coal, gas, naphtha, rock phosphate, sulphur, ammonia, phosphoric acid, electricity, etc has gone up sharply in the recent years. There is therefore a need to encourage RD activities in the areas of new energy saving products, alternative feedstock, etc. As high energy costs restrict capacity expansion in urea sector, more and more joint ventures have to be encouraged. For the phosphate/potash, which lack potential reserves within the country, joint ventures are already being undertaken by various companies within India and abroad. Efforts are also being undertaken to make India which currently imports urea a urea manufacturing hub. A number of proposals for setting up new plants and expansion of existing plants have been received by the Department of Fertilisers. All of these plants are likely to use gas for producing urea. The fertiliser industry in India has helped India achieve self-sufficiency in food grains and has helped in rapid agricultural growth. The demand for fertiliser is growing at a fast pace and is expected to grow up to 28.08 mn MT by 20011-12. However, production has somewhat stagnated over the past few years, creating a demand-supply gap in the industry and provides ample opportunities for manufacturers to ramp up their capacities and for new entrants to set up production units.

The Changing Relationship between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth...

The relationship among Macbeth and Lady Macbeth alters throughout the play Macbeth as they both in turn take on the role of the more dominant character. Their attitude to each other constantly changes throughout the play, although events in the play certainly draw Macbeth and Lady Macbeth apart their love for one another is evident throughout the play. Macbeth shows his love by saying a few compassionate words in his letter to Lady Macbeth about the meeting with the three weird sisters. Lady Macbeth shows that she cares for him by planning the murder of King Duncan so Macbeth can become king. By the end of the play Macbeth doesn’t care about his wife’s health that much, when she dies his taught was she was bound to die one day.†¦show more content†¦However once they accomplish the deed, the torment that the guilt brings is too much for Macbeth but he gets used to the evil of killing people meanwhile the opposite happens to Lady Macbeth who becomes paranoid about killing Duncan. Shakespeare presents the play in such a way that the audience sees how more and more their relationship changes dramatically as a result of how they each handle their emotions following the murder of King Duncan. Although Macbeth was weak at first, it was the strong Lady Macbeth who helped him through the first murder, but in sacrifice to controlling Macbeth and his conscience, she lost control of her own and consequently became insane and committed suicide. Lady Macbeth repeatedly convinced her husband by questioning his manhood â€Å"When you durst do it, then you were a man, / And, to be more than what you were, you would / Be so much more the man† (Shakespeare 1.7.54-56). She is a strong, powerful character in comparison to her easily influenced husband, until towards the end of the play where he seems to take on her role. Lady Macbeth is a strong character controlling her terrifying dreams at night and rescuing Macbeth from his weak conscience as in the scene when Macbeth sees Banquo’s ghost. She protects him and defends him at the banquet. However as the play progresses, Lady Macbeth’s relationship with Macbeth weakens and we see more of her defenselessness and delicateness. During theShow MoreRelatedEssay on The Changing Relationship Between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth2414 Words   |  10 PagesThe Changing Relationship Between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth Throughout Macbeth there are changes in the relationship between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth as they both in turn take on the role of the more dominant character. Shakespeare presents the play in such a way that the audience sees how progressively their relationship changes dramatically as a result of how they each handle their emotions following the murder of King Duncan. It is evident at the beginning of theRead MoreChanging Relationship Between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth1173 Words   |  5 PagesHow does the relationship between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth change throughout the play? In the early stages of the play, the Macbeths seem to be a devoted couple. Their love and concern for each other remains strong and constant throughout the play, but their relationship changes dramatically following the ruthless killing of King Duncan in Act II. At the beginning of the play, Macbeth and his lady are very close, this is supported by how he referred to her in his letter as â€Å"my dearest partner ofRead MoreChanging Relationship Between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth1157 Words   |  5 PagesHow does the relationship between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth change throughout the play? In the early stages of the play, the Macbeths seem to be a devoted couple. Their love and concern for each other remains strong and constant throughout the play, but their relationship changes dramatically following the ruthless killing of King Duncan in Act II. At the beginning of the play, Macbeth and his lady are very close, this is supported by how he referred to her in his letter as â€Å"my dearest partner ofRead MoreThe Transformation of the Relationship Between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth1022 Words   |  5 PagesMacbeth, a tragedy play by written William Shakespeare. Throughout the play the relationship between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth is the engine that drives the tragedy of the play. Macbeth is a play about a Scottish knight named Macbeth who comes back from battle and meets three ‘witches’. They predict that Macbeth shall become king. At first he was skeptical though when it was announced by King Duncan that he will be made Thane of Cawdor, the next in line for king for his bravery on the battlefieldRead MoreRole-Reversal in Macbeth1315 Words   |  6 PagesWhen Macbeth first receives the prophecy predicting he will be king and Banquos heirs will be kings, he is satisfied with the idea of being king. Banquos heirs d o not concern him at this point. Once he assassinates Duncan and is crowned king, however, this isnt enough. Now he wants his heirs to be king. He asks himself, why should he have taken all this risk just to put Banquos heirs on the throne? Unsatisfied with just ruling himself, he plots to kill not only Banquo, but Fleance. HisRead MoreEssay about Macbeth623 Words   |  3 Pages Macbeth and Lady Macbeth’s Ambition The driving force to achieve the Macbeths’ goals was ambition. 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In the play there is very little interaction between Macbeth and Duncan, showing the little time in which Macbeth gets more power. Prior to the witches’ prophecies Macbeth is loyal to Duncan, and would never imagine killing him. After the one of the witches’ prophecies comes to be true, the thought of killing Duncan, Macbeth yield[s] to that suggestion / whose horrid image doth unfix my hair / and

Basic Syntactic Notions Free Essays

string(75) " sentence that we arrive at after dividing it into two \(the first step\)\." S Y N T A X LECTURE 6 BASIC SYNTACTIC NOTIONS 1. Some approaches to the study of syntactic units. The central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the 20th century, which some scholars call the â€Å"century of syntactic theory† as far as linguistics is concerned. We will write a custom essay sample on Basic Syntactic Notions or any similar topic only for you Order Now Nowadays theoretical approaches to the discipline of syntax are numerous and extremely diverse. One school of thought treats syntax as a branch of biology, since it conceives of syntax as the study of linguistic knowledge as embodied in the human mind. Other linguists regard syntax to be the study of an abstract formal system. Yet others consider syntax to be a taxonomical device to reach broad generalizations across languages. One more school of thought approaches syntactic phenomena from the philosophical point of view proceeding from the idea that reality consists of things, their qualities and relationships. Hence, the subdivision of words by the parts of speech and the treatment of syntactic problems as philisophic processes. The hypothesis of generative grammar is that language is a structure of the human mind. The goal of generative grammar is to make a complete model of this inner language (known as i-language). This model could be used to describe all human language and to predict the grammaticality of any given utterance (that is, to predict whether the utterance would sound correct to native speakers of the language). This approach to language was pioneered by Noam Comsky. Most generative theories (although not all of them) assume that syntax is based upon the constituent structure of sentences. Generative grammars are among the theories that focus primarily on the form of a sentence, rather than its communicative function. Among the many generative theories of linguistics, the Chomskyan theories are: Transformational Grammar (TG) (Original theory of generative syntax laid out by Chomsky in Syntactic Structures in 1957 ; Government and binding theory (GB) (revised theory in the tradition of TG developed mainly by Chomsky in the 1970s and 1980s); Minimalist program (MP) (a reworking of the theory out of the GB framework published by Chomsky in 1995) Categorial grammar is an approach that attributes the syntactic structure not to rules of grammar, but to the properties of the syntactic categories themselves. For example, rather than asserting that sentences are constructed by a rule that combines a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP) (e. g. the phrase structure rule S NP VP), in categorial grammar, such principles are embedded in the category of the head word itself. So the syntactic category for an intransitive verb is a complex formula representing the fact that the verb acts as a functor which requires an NP as an input and produces a sentence level structure as an output. This complex category is regarded as † a category that searches to the left for a NP (the element on the left) and outputs a sentence (the element on the right)†. The category of transitive verb is defined as an element that requires two NPs (its subject and its direct object) to form a sentence. Dependency grammar regards structure as determined by the relations (such as grammatical relations) between a word (a head) and its dependents, rather than being based in constituent structure. For example, syntactic structure is described in terms of whether a particular noun is the subject or agent of the verb, rather than describing the relations in terms of phrases. Stochastic/probabilistic grammars/network theories These are theoretical approaches to syntax based upon probability theory. They are known as stochastic grammars. One common implementation of such an approach makes use of a neural network or connectionism. Some theories based within this approach are: Optimality theory and Stochastic context-free grammar. Functionalist grammars are functionalist theories, which (though focused upon form) are driven by explanation based upon the function of a sentence (i. e. its communicative function). Some typical functionalist theories include: Funtionalist grammar; Prague Linguistic Circle; Systemic functional grammar; Cognitive grammar; Construction grammar; Role and reference grammar; Emergent grammar Constructional Syntax. Constructional analysis of syntactic units was initiated by Prof. G. Pocheptsov (1971). The analysis deals with the constructional significance/insignificance of a part of the sentence for the whole syntactic unit. The theory is based on the obligatory or optional environment of syntactic elements. For example, the element him in the sentence / saw him there yesterday is constructionally significant because it is impossible to omit it. At the same time the elements there and yesterday are constructionally insignificant – they can be omitted without destroying the whole structure. Communicative Syntax. It is primarily concerned with the analysis of utterances from the point of their communicative value and informative structure. It deals with the actual division of the utterance – the theme and rheme analysis. Both the theme and the rheme constitute the informative structure of utterances. Pragmatic approach to the study of syntactic units can briefly be described as the study of the way language is used in particular contexts to achieve particular goals. Speech Act Theory was first introduced by John Austin. The notion of a speech act presupposes that an utterance can be said with different intentions or purposes and therefore can influence the speaker and situation in different ways: I just state the fact; Textlinguistics studies the text as a syntactic unit, its main features and peculiarities, different ways of its analysis. Discourse analysis focuses on the study of language use with reference to the social and psychological factors that influence communication. 2. Some concrete methods of syntactic analysis. The most commonly applied concrete methods of syntactic analysis seem to be the IC and transformational procedures. The method of IC is based on the idea that sentences have a hierarchic structure consisting of a number of layers. It is assumed that parts of a sentence are combined with each other according to strict rules. If we want to know how a sentence is built we must separate its units or constituents. Hence the notion of immediate constituents /IC/. Immediate constituents are those parts of a sentence that we arrive at after dividing it into two (the first step). You read "Basic Syntactic Notions" in category "Essay examples" Those parts or IC may, in their turn, be divided into further parts until the actual place of each word in the structure of the sentence as a whole has been established. (e. g. The old man saw a black dog there. S – sentence P – phrase N- noun V – verb t – article p – preposition A – adjective D – adverb) The method of IC is very helpful in syntactical analysis. But it has certain limitations. Sentences in which the relations between words are considerably different despite identical surface structures get in the IC model quite similar interpretations. Compare the sentences: John is eager to please and John is easy to please. In the former the relations between John and eager are of a subjective character, while in the latter John and easy stand in an objective relation to each other. By applying the method of IC we cannot establish formally the existing difference. It is because the structures of these sentences are analyzed separatel y from the structures of other sentences. The tansformational method is aimed at overcoming the demerits of the method of IC. The Transformational grammar was first suggested by American scholar Zelling Harris as a method of analyzing sentences and was later elaborated by another American scholar Noam Chomsky as a synthetic method of ‘generating’ (constructing) sentenceswhich is why the theory is also called â€Å"generative grammar†. The fundamental ideas underlying this method are as follows. Every language has a very small number of sentence patterns called kernel or basic sentences. All the variety of sentences which can exist in that language are derived or generated from these kernel sentences by derivation rules. Grammarians have made attempts at setting up a list of patterns that could be regarded as kernel sentences. It is interesting to point out that the number of these is essentially different in various books. Transformational grammar makes a fundamental distinction between two types of sentences: kernel sentences and transforms. The latter are derived from the former. Transformational grammar traces the derivational history of a sentence by establishing what is called its â€Å"depth structure†. It thus shows why sentences having similar surface structures convey different structural meanings. The differences in meaning can be formally explained applying the transformational method. Z. Harris set up the following list of kernel sentences: NV(John came); NVpN (John looked at Mary); NVN(John saw Mary); N is N (John is a teacher); N is p N (/John is in bed); N is D (John is here); N is A (John is angry) The above sentence â€Å"The old man saw a dog there† can be interpreted as the transform of the following three kernel sentences:The man saw a dog there. The man was old. The dog was black. (The man who was old saw a dog that was black. ( The old man saw a black dog there. The ambiguity of the sentence â€Å"Flying planes can be dangerous†, is easily explained by the following transformational procedure: To fly planes is dangerous. He can fly planes. ( Flying planes can be dangerous. Planes can be dangerous. Planes fly. ( Flying planes can be dangerous. Only by transformation can we explain why phrases of the N`sN type denote different relations as in John’s arrival and John’s trial, the former being a transform of the kernel sentence John arrives and the latter having a different derivational history: X triesJohn ( John is tried ( John’s trial. S. Porter reduces the number of kernel sentences to three: â€Å"All simple sentences belong to one of three types: A) The sun warms the earth; B) The sun is a star; C) The sun is bright; As an argument S. Porter adds: â€Å"Word order is changeless in A) and B), but not in C). Even in sober prose a man may say â€Å"Bright is the sun†. The sentences derived fromsuch kernel sentences are words or combination words added to the kernel ones in accordance with their combinability so as to make the communication as complete as the speaker wishes. Thus, the kernel sentence â€Å"Boys play† can be quite independent. But this sentence can be extended by realizing the combinability of the noun â€Å"boys† and the verb â€Å"play† into â€Å"The three noisy boys play boisterous upstairs†. We can develop the sentence into a still more extended one. But one should bear in mind that the rules of combinability have to be observed for the sentence to be valid. It should also be stressed that there are rules of grammatical and lexical combinability as well as stylistic ones. The combination of words will be ungrammatical if we put together â€Å"boys plays†, instead of â€Å"boys play† or â€Å"the fish shouted† instead of â€Å"the boy shouted†. 3 The Subject Matter of Syntax Words by themselves do not, as a rule, make up complete units of speech, in order to become such units, they must get combined with one another in the framework of linguistic items of a higher rank. These are the sentence and the phrase. As a whole, they make up the syntactical structure of a language. From the point of view of Structural Grammar syntax is the part of grammar that studies the laws in accordance with which words become phrases, and sentences. Hence, syntax is the part of grammar that investigates the syntactical structure of a language. It treats of both phrases and sentences which, though belonging to different levels of language structure, are closely connected with each other. The traditional definition of syntax was extended by Prof. L. S. Barkhudarov who states that syntax has also to investigate phenomena lying on a still higher level, namely the level on which sentences combine into groups of sentences. Considering the fact that syntax studies the way words and phrases are combined into phrases, sentences and texts some scholars define syntax as the science which studies the types of formal and semantic relations within word combinations, sentences, supra-phrasal unities and texts. The syntactic language level can be described with the help of special linguistic terms and notions: syntactic unit, syntactic form, syntactic meaning, syntactic function, syntactic position, and syntactic relations. Syntactic unit is always a combination that has at least two constituents. The basic syntactic units are a word-group, a clause, a sentence, and a text. Their main features are: they are hierarchical units (the units of a lower level serve the building material for the units of a higher level); as all language units the syntactic units are of two-fold nature (the content side – the syntactic meaning of a syntactic unit- being opposed to the expression side -the syntactic form of a syntactic unit); they are of communicative and non-communicative nature (word-groups and clauses are of non-communicative nature while sentences and texts are of communicative nature. Syntactic meaning is the way in which separate word meanings are combined to produce meaningful word-groups and sentences. Syntactic form may be described as the distributional formula of the unit (pattern). John hits the ball – N1 + V + N2. Syntactic function is the function of a unit on the basis of which it is included to a larger unit: in the word-group a smart student the word ‘smart’ is in subordinate attributive relations to the head element. In traditional terms it is used to denote syntactic function of a unit within the sentence (subject, predicate, etc. ). Syntactic position is the position of an element. The order of constituents in syntactic units is of principal importance in analytical languages. The syntactic position of an element may determine its relationship with the other elements of the same unit: his broad back, a back district, to go back, to back sm. Syntactic relations are syntagmatic relations observed between syntactic units. They can be of three types -coordination, subordination and predication. 4 The Phrase Level and the Sentence Level Modern linguistics distinguishes between the phrase level and the sentence level. There exist many definitions of phrases, the difference between them being that one group of scholars hold that phrases consist of only notional words while their opponents think that the constituents of a phrase can be function words (prepositions, conjunctions, etc. ). Most definitions mention some negative feature characteristic of phrases. Prof. B. A. Ilyish, for instance, terms as phrase â€Å"every combination of two or more words which is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some word. † Prof. L. S. Barkhudarov, on the other hand, defines a phrase as â€Å"a group of syntactically connected notional words being part of a sentence but not being the sentence itself. † We have already mentioned how difficult it is to draw a rigid demarcation line between phrases and analytical forms. As to the borderline between phrases and sentences, it is much easier to establish. The most important feature of a sentence as distinct from a phrase is its intonation. The structure of a phrase is of a very wide and abstract character. While singling out particular types of phrases we do not take into account the lexical meanings of the words or their morphological features. (So, for example, all the groups of words, that follow, can be classed as phrases of the V+N type: writes a letter, has seen the friend, has been giving lessons, having completed the work, etc. ) Since phrases are only parts of sentences, we must assume that there exists a higher level with its own peculiar structure. It is called the sentence level. Irrespective of its linear character (a succession in time or space of morphemes, words, phrases), the sentence has a hierarchic structure. That means that the parts of a sentence are not independent, they can exist as such only in their mutual interrelation. The interdependence of the parts of a sentence is not necessarily reflected in their linear succession. 5. Types of Syntactical Relations; Means of Expression The relations between words within phrases and sentences are not uniform. It is one of the most important tasks of syntax to single out and to define the types of syntactical relations. The universally recognized types of syntactic relations are: subordination, coordination and predication. Subordination is the type of syntactical relation under which the function of one part of the phrase coincides with the function of the phrase as a whole. The leading part is called the head of the phrase while the part having a function different from that of the head is called the adjunct of the phrase. Apart from the purely semantic criterion it is quite possible to establish which word is the head by applying the formal procedure of substitution (e. g. â€Å" A young man entered the room†. In this sentence the whole group a young man performs the function of the subject. We may replace the group by the word man: â€Å"A man entered the room†. Hence, the word man is the head of the phrase and young – the adjunct. ) While performing the substitution procedure one should not change the syntactical relations within the sentence as a whole(e. g. He is a young man. He is a man. He is young /wrong/). Coordination is the type of syntactical relation under which he syntactical function of the whole group coincides with that of its parts. Coordination can also be established by applying the substitution test (Thus, in the sentence â€Å"Boys and girls studied at that school†, the group boys and girls performs the function of the subject. The same function can be performed by either of the words making up the group: â€Å"Boys and girls studied at that school†. â€Å"Boys studied at that school†, â€Å"Girls studied at that school†). Coordinative relations are found in phrases with coordinative conjunctions /but, neither†¦nor/ and also in groups like the poet Byron, my brother the teacher(e. g. The poet Byron lived in Greece. – The poet lived in Greece. – Byron lived in Greece; My brother the teacher got married last year. – My brother got married last year. – The teacher got married last year). Predication is the type of syntactical relation under which the syntactical function of the group as a whole is different from the functions of each of its components /IC/. The most typical predicative relation is that between the subject and the predicate. This is most distinctly seen in complex sentences such as: â€Å"I hate†¦talking loudly†; â€Å"I knew he had come† None of the IC of the subordinate clauses can be replaced by the clause as a whole. It is impossible to say â€Å"I knew he† or â€Å"I knew had come†. The types of syntactic bonds just described are generally recognized, though not all scholars use the terms given above to designate them. However, these types of syntactic bonds can fail to explain the relation between, for instance, the main predication and the inserted elements in the sentences (â€Å"The boy, as it were, left the house†. â€Å" Interestingly and fortunately for him nobody saw him†). That is why some grammarians consider it also necessary to single out other types of syntactic relation to cover the cases in question. The number and types of syntactic bonds added to the above given ones varies from author to author and we are not going to dwell on them here. Instead, we shall confine ourselves to presenting the system of syntactic bonds worked out by Prof. Smirnitskiy which will serve as an example. According to him there are four types of syntactic relations in English: 1) the attributive bond characterized by A. I. Smirnitskiy as the closest kind of syntactic relations (we deal with the attributive bond in attributive word combinations or between the attributive subordinate clause and its head in the main clause); 2) the completive bond connecting the predicate and all kinds of objects, objective subordinate clauses. Adverbial subordinate clauses are also said to be connected with the main clause with the help of this kind of bond; 3) the copulative bond connecting homogeneous parts of a sentence, or independent clauses in a compound sentence. Parenthesis(or insertions) of all kinds are also regarded as syntactic phenomena introduced into the sentence with the help of this kind of syntactic bond; 4) the predicative bond, which is described as the loosest of all syntactic bonds, establishes the relations between the subject and the predicate. Every language has its peculiar grammatical means that signal different syntactical relations. Like morphemes indicating various forms of words, these may be called syntactical forms for they express syntactical relations. The relations between words in a phrase or a sentence are diverse and multiple. In syntactical analyses we normally avoid mentioning relations which can be ascribed to the lexical meanings of the words (e. g. In the phrases his singing and his hat the semantic relations between the words are different (doer- process, possession) but syntactically we have one and the same relation (subordination). Modern English makes use of the following syntactical means of expressing syntagmatic relations: Word-order. It is with the help of word-order that we make out the syntactical relations between the words in the following groups: a young man; to read a book; stone wall; Peter sees Mary; etc. Word order may indicate not only that the words stand in some kind of relation to one another but also what kind of relation it is. The forms of the words. This linguistic device has more than often been underestimated by scholars writing on the grammar of English. In the opinion of Prof. A. I. Smirnitskiy, it is just due to their scarcity that the forms of the words acquire an important role in the structure of the sentence or phrase. The importance of the morphological forms can be clearly seen if we compare the following two groups of which only the former is a sentence: He likes them – Him like they. Function words. By these we mean prepositions and conjunctions which show different relations between words (e. g. the poet Byron – the poet after Byron; a poor man – poor and proud). Intonation. Intonation may perform different functions: it helps to distinguish between a phrase and a sentence, it may also indicate different relations between words. LECTURE 7 THE PHRASE 1. Syntactical Classification of Phrases In accordance with the character of syntactic relations existing between the parts of a phrase, these are divided into three large classes: subordinative phrases, coordinative phrases, predicative phrases. This division is based on the definition under which a phrase is understood as a combination of two. or more notional words standing in some syntactical relation to one another’ and being . art of a sentence. 2. Formal Relations within a Phrase. The inner relations between the parts of a phrase are expressed formally in some way or other. No uniform classification of these formal devices has not been established so far. Still, the following types of formal syntactical means have been outlined so far: Agreement by which grammarians understand the phenomenon of two or more words having similar morphological forms due to their being connected syntactically. As a rule, the subordinate element adapts its form to that of the word it is subordinated to. Agreement is found in noun phrases with demonstrative pronouns: (this book – these books that house – those houses. ) As to the agreement between the subject and the predicate, it is of a less formal character (e. g. The United States is a country situated in North America. Our group are fond of sports. ) In this respect English is less formal than, say, Russian. In English the subject and the predicate agree with each other semantically rather than formally. This type of connection is called correspondence. Government by which grammarians understand he phenomenon of one of the words in a phrase having some grammatical form conditioned by the word it is subordinate to Government is very common in Russian where even prepositions can require that the nouns following them should stand in a certain case form. As a syntactical device government is rather rare in Modern English. We find it in combinations of the V+In type in which the verb requires that the personal pronoun s hould have the form of the objective case. The same can be said of p + In and p + whom (see him, invite us, to me, about whom, etc). Adjoining and enclosure. The absence of both agreement and government, termed adjoining, is the most characteristic feature of the syntactical structure of Modern English. Adverbs, for example, are said to be adjoined to verbs and adjectives. Strictly speaking it is not only the actual position of the adjective that helps the hearer or reader to understand what word is modified by the adverb, but in many cases some semantic features have also to be taken into account, for the adverb may be considerably far from the word it is connected with. Modern English makes extensive use of another means of expressing syntactical relations. It is called en enclosure. A very illustrative example of enclosure is found in word groups like a. fine day, where the article is separated from the noun permitting other words to become syntactically connected with the noun. In this way any word, word group and even whole sentences may become adjuncts of the noun (e. g. The above statement; a big-circulation newspaper; a take-it-or-leave-it tone). 3. 0. Jespersen ‘s Theory of Ranks A very interesting syntactical theory, known as the theory of three ranks. was elaborated by O. Jespersen. According to this theory, there is a certain analogy between the distribution of words into parts of speech and their interrelations in actual speech. Analysing the word group extremely hot weather 0. Jespersen points out that the chief word is defined by another word which in its turn may be defined by a third word, etc. â€Å"We are thus†, he writes, â€Å"led to establish different â€Å"ranks† of words according to their mutual relations as defined defining. † In his example weather is called_the primary, hot – the secondary, extremely – the tertiary In this way one can establish the rank of a word in respect of the other words it is connected with. . Subordinative phrases: noun phrases; verb phrases; adjective phrases; adverb phrases; pronoun phrases. .Subordinative phrases are distinctly different from co-ordinative and predicative phrases. In these phrases we always find parts winch are unequal as regards their syntactical status. The word wh ose function coincides with the function of the whole_phrase is called the head, and the dependent or subordinate word is called the adjunct. Unlike coordinative phrases subordinative phrases are always binary in structure. That means that irrespective of the actual number of words making up a subordinative phrase it always falls into two immediate constituents. So, for example, the phrase continued to refuse to meet demands for higher wages, at the initial stage of division into I? falls into two parts: continued and to refuse to meet demands for higher wages. What was the adjunct during the first division, in its turn, falls into the next I?: to refuse and to meet demands for higher wages; the latter also consists of two parts: to meet and demands for higher wages, and so on. The principles of classification of subordinative phrases may be various. They may be classified depending on the part of speech the head of the phrase belongs to. Under this classification the following types of phrases are distinguished: noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases, pronoun phrases. The second classification takes into account whether the I? of the phrase consist of one or more than one. notional words. If each I? of the phrase has only one notional_word, the phrase is called simple. If at least one of the I? has_two or more notional_words, the phrase is called complex. We can also distinguish, in this connection, between complex phrases with an expanded head and complex phrases with an expanded adjunct , and, finally, there may be phrases in which both the head and the adjunct are expanded. (e. g. The reception of the delegation by the President (a complex phrase with an expanded head) Saw the father of the youth (a complex phrase with an expanded adjunct); The reception of the delegation by the President of the state (a complex phrase in which both the head and the adjunct are expanded). Subordinative phrases may additionally be divided into continuous and discontinuous. This division takes into account the fact whether the I? of the phrase are found in succession or whether they are separated by some word which does not belong to this phrase. (e. g. Slowly, Old Jolyon got up out of the chair – a discontinuous phrase). a. Noun Phrases Noun_phrases are subordinatiye phrases in which the,head is a noun. As regards the mutual positions of the head and its adjunct linguists distinguish noun phrases with preposed adjuncts and noun phrases with postposed adjuncts. In noun phrases with preposed adjuncts the latter can be expressed by the following classes of words: adjectives, pronouns, numerals, verbs in the form of participle I or participle II, nouns having the ‘s morpheme or without it. To use symbols, these phrases have the following structures: AN (white snow; thick books); laN (this room; his friend); QN (three windows; the second lesson); V-ingN (shouting boys; melting ice); V-enN (written works; corrected mistakes); N’sN (Mary’s book; a week’s delay); NN (window glass; university team). In noun phrases with postposed adjuncts the following units may be the adjuncts: prepositional groups; adjectives and adjective phrases; verbs in the form of participles and verb phrases in which participles are the heads; verbs in the form of the infinitive and verb phrases in which the infinitive is the head; infinitival and gerundial predicative phrases; noun phrases; conjunctional groups; adverbs; numerals;subordinate clauses. The patterns noun phrases with postposed adjuncts are: NpN (the title of the book); NpNP (the title of the new book); NpIn (the saving of him); NpV-ing (my reason for coming); NpV-ingP (my reason for coming here). In principle any preposition can be part of a postposed adjunct. Special investigations have shown, however, that the preposition of covers 70% of all occurrences. Postposed adjuncts with adjectives are relatively rare, in this position the occurrence of adjective phrases is much more common: NA (the people present); NAP (a country rich in coal). It should be stressed here that only a limited number of adjectives can be used as postposed adjuncts. They are: the adjective present; adjectives with the suffixes -ible, -able, some adjectives with the prefix a- (afraid, alive). Postposed adjuncts with verbs in various forms are represented by the following types: NV-en (the person addressed); NV-ing (the children shouting); NV-enP (the work done by him); NV-ingP (the children shouting in the yard); NtoV (the work to do); NtoVD (the work to do quickly). Postposed adjuncts consisting of predicative phrases are of two kinds: they may have as a head either the infinitive or the ing-form. As a rule, they are introduced by the preposition for (the so-called for-phrases). Here are some of the most frequent patterns: NforNtoV (a book for Tom to read); NforN’sV-ing or NforNV-ing (the reason for Tom’s coming; the reason for Tom coming). Each part of the adjunct may get considerably expanded (the reason for poor Tom’s coming late;a poem for this little boy to learn by heart). Postposed adjuncts in which nouns are the heads or introduced by the conjunction as are not very frequent in Modern English. They are: NNP (a child the same age); NasN (his life as an artist); NasNP (his life as an opera singer). Postposed adjuncts with adverbs are rarely used: ND (Jim’s speech yesterday). Postposed adjuncts with numerals are confined in English only to quantitative numerals (page three, room ten). b. Verb PhrasesVerb phrases take a central position among all types of phrases in Modern English. They display a great variety of structure and are capable of combining with one another. Therefore they make up syntactical constructions of considerable depth, and complexity. Prof. L. S. Barkhudarov suggested that verb phrases should be classified according to the lexico-grammatical nature of the verb being the head of the phrase. As is known, all English verbs fall into two large classes: transitive and intransitive verbs. It is also known that many verbs can be used in either meaning but this is quite irrelevant for syntax because in any given sentence one and the same verb is either transitive or intransitive. Under the classification suggested by Prof. L. S. Barkhudarov English verb phrases fall into the following main classes: phrases the head of which is either a transitive or an intransitive verb; phrases the head of which necessarily belongs to a definite subclass of verbs (transitive or intransitive). The adjuncts in verb phrases, accordingly, fall into two types: adjuncts capable of combining with verbs of either class called extensions; adjuncts capable of combining with verbs of only a definite class (transitive or intransitive) called complements. The adjuncts of a transitive verb are called object complements, those of an intransitive verb qualifying complements. The following adjuncts can be found in verb phrases with extensions: adverbs and adverb phrases; adjectives and adjective phrases; prepositional groups; noun phrases without prepositions; pronouns; verbs in the form of the infinitive; participle I and participle II;conjunctional groups; predicative phrases;subordinate clauses: VD (runs quickly); VDP (runs very quickly); VA (stood, angry); VAP (stood, red with anger); VpN (returns to the country);VNP arrived last week); VIa (lives there); VIself. washing himself); VtoT (came to help); VtoVP (came to help me); VV-ing (came laughing); VV-en (came, frightened); VbN (acting as judge); VbA (speaking whenever possible); Vb toV (rising so as to see); VforNtoV (stood for John to pass); VpN’sV-ing (left without John’s, noticing). (For verb phrases with complements see: ?. ?. . , p? 89 -110) ?. Adjective Phrases Adjective phrases have a comparatively low frequency of occurrence, if the head of the phrase is an adjective in the positive degree, the adjunct may be: an adverb; a prepositional group; a noun; a noun phrase; a verb in the form of the gerund or the infinitive; a predicative phrase and a subordinate clause: DA (incredibly beautiful); ApNP (good for young children); AN (worth the trouble); AV-ingP (busy doing sums); AtoV (ready to go); AforNtoV (easy for John to read). Things are somewhat different with adjectives in the comparative and superlative degrees. Adjectives in the comparative degree usually combine with adjuncts introduced by the conjunction than (Tom is older than George). They also combine with adverbs and adverbial pronouns, such as far, still, much (far greater, much better, still greater). Adjectives in the superlative degree may have a proposed adjunct like by far or a postposed adjunct – a prepositional group introduced by the prepositions of and in. d. Adverb Phrases In adverb phrases the adjuncts may stand both in preposition and in postposition. Proposed adjuncts are adverbs and adverbial pronouns (except enough), and with the adverbs before, later, earlier, ago nouns or noun phrases. Postposed adjuncts are the pro-adverb enough, prepositional groups (p+N,etc. ), nouns and noun phrases: DD (rather well); IdD (so nicely); ND (years later); NPD (six days ago); D+enough (well enough); DpN (high in the air). e. Pronoun PhrasesOnly indefinite, negative and demonstrative pronouns can be heads of pronoun phrases. They take the following adjuncts: prepositional groups (p+N; p+In, p+NP); adjectives or adjective phrases; verbs in the form of the infinitive or verb phrases with the infinitive as the head;infinitival predicative phrases and subordinate clauses. The adjunct is always placed in postposition: In pN (some of the workers); In pIn (some of us); InA (something strange); IntoV (nothing to do); In forNtoV (Nobody for Tom to see). 5. Coordinative phrases. Co-ordinate phrases are characterized by the following features: all its members have a similar function in the sentence; their structure is not binary. As to the morphological peculiarities of the constituents of a coordinate phrase, it should be stressed here that this point is of no relevance for syntax. (So, for example, in the sentence – Celia was pretty and a good companion – pretty and a good companion are the constituents of one and the same coordinate phrase irrespective of their being essentially different as regards their morphological nature: pretty is an adjective, good companion is a noun phrase. ) Coordinate phrases fall into two groups: 1)Syndetic coordinate phrases. The syntactical connection between the I? is expressed with the help of conjunctions. If the conjunction is continuous, the coordinate phrase is said to be simple. If the conjunction is discontinuous, the phrase is said to be correlative (E. g. It was the sound of a gramophone, harsh and loud, He has both luck and talent. ) 2)Asyndetic coordinate phrases. The syntactical connection between the parts of the phrase is expressed only with the help of intonation. (E. g. He was hot, dusty, tired out. The good lady her mother now interposed. ) 6. Predicative phrases Predicative phrases fall into three groups: infinitival predicative phrases (for John to come); gerundial predicative phrases (John’s coming); absolute predicative phrases (all things considered). Predicative phrases have a binary structure, they are made up of only two I?. They have much in common with sentences, but the I? of a predicative phrase should not be termed subject and predicate. It should be noted here that the subjectival member of a predicative phrase and the subject of a sentence always refer to different persons or things. (E. g. He stood up for me to sit down. He is proud of his friend having won a prize. The lesson being over, we went home. ) Infinitival predicative phrasesThe subjectival member of an infinitival predicative phrase is a noun. a noun phrase or a pronoun, the latter in the form of the objective case. The predicatival member of an infinitival predicative phrase is any form of the infinitive with or without words subordinate to it. The phrase is preceded by the preposition for: forN/P/toV/P/ (for John to go there); forI toV/P/ (for something to happen); forI toV/?/ (for him to come late). Gerundial predicative phrasesThe subjectival member of a gerundial predicative phrase is a noun or a noun phrase with or without the morpheme ‘s; a possessive pronoun in the conjoint form or a personal pronoun in the objective case form and other pronouns. The predicatival member of a gerundial predicative phrase is any form of the gerund with or without words subordinate to it: NP’sV-ingP (young John’s coming late); NPV-ing P: (young John coming late); I’sV-ingP (his coming late); ImV-ing P (him coming late). Absolute predicative phrasesThe subjectival member of an absolute predicative phrase is a noun or a noun phrase, a personal pronoun in the nominative case or another type of pro-noun. The predicatival member of an absolute predicative phrase is a verb in the form of the participle or the infinitive, or a verb phrase with these forms as a head, or non-verbal parts of speech: adjectives, adverbs, prepositional groups:NPV-ingP (his voice trembling with excitement); InV-ingP (it rising slowly); NPV-enP ( his thirst gone); NPtoV? (the expenses to be paid); In toVP (each to be defined); NPAP (his face very pale); NPD (breakfast over); NPpNP (hat in hand); NPpIm (her back to him); NPNP (his shot a failure). Instances are not few when absolute predicative phrases are introduced by the prepositions with or without. (He looked at Mr. Micawber attentively, with his whole face breathing short and quick in every feature. I left the room without anybody noticing it) How to cite Basic Syntactic Notions, Essay examples